Comparative politics is a major subfield of political science that systematically analyzes and compares political systems, institutions, processes, and behaviors across different countries. Originating in antiquity with Aristotle’s empirical analysis of Greek city-state constitutions, modern comparative politics uses both qualitative case studies and quantitative methods to understand how power is structured and exercised. The discipline investigates state formation, regime types (democratic vs. authoritarian), institutional frameworks (presidential vs. parliamentary), electoral systems, and political culture. Mastering these comparative frameworks, behavioral theories, and institutional typologies is essential for students preparing for political science examinations, civil service assessments, and international relations research.
1. Which scholar is known for identifying the 'Most Similar Systems Design' and 'Most Different Systems Design' in comparative politics?
Correct Answer: a) Arend Lijphart
Explanation:
Lijphart formalized the comparative method, identifying MSSD and MDSD as key research designs.
2. The 'Behavioral Revolution' in comparative politics primarily emphasized:
Correct Answer: b) Quantitative data and individual behavior
Explanation:
Behavioralism shifted focus from institutions to the quantifiable political behavior of individuals.
3. Who developed the concept of the 'Political System' and the 'Input-Output' model?
Correct Answer: c) David Easton
Explanation:
David Easton introduced the systems theory approach to political science.
4. According to Max Weber, the state is defined by its monopoly on:
Correct Answer: b) Legitimate use of physical force
Explanation:
Weber famously defined the state as a human community claiming the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force.
5. Which theory links economic development directly to the emergence and survival of democracy?
Correct Answer: c) Modernization Theory
Explanation:
Modernization theory, famously advanced by Seymour Martin Lipset, links wealth to democratic stability.
6. The 'Resource Curse' or 'Paradox of Plenty' suggests that countries with abundant natural resources tend to have:
Correct Answer: b) Less economic growth and less democracy
Explanation:
The resource curse often leads to authoritarianism and economic stagnation due to rent-seeking.
7. In political science, a 'Rentier State' is one that:
Correct Answer: b) Derives most of its revenue from external rent, like oil exports
Explanation:
Rentier states rely on external rents rather than domestic taxation, often reducing democratic accountability.
8. Which author wrote 'The Clash of Civilizations', arguing that future conflicts will be cultural and religious?
Correct Answer: b) Samuel Huntington
Explanation:
Huntington proposed that post-Cold War conflicts would occur along cultural and civilizational fault lines.
9. Francis Fukuyama's 'The End of History' thesis argues that:
Correct Answer: b) Liberal democracy is the final form of human government
Explanation:
Fukuyama argued that liberal democracy constitutes the endpoint of mankind's ideological evolution.
10. Which of the following best defines 'Consociationalism'?
Correct Answer: b) Power-sharing among leaders of different deeply divided social groups
Explanation:
Consociationalism ensures stability in divided societies through elite cooperation and power-sharing.
11. Duverger's Law states that a simple-majority single-ballot system favors a:
Correct Answer: b) Two-party system
Explanation:
Maurice Duverger posited that First-Past-The-Post systems mechanically and psychologically favor two parties.
12. Proportional Representation (PR) electoral systems generally tend to produce:
Correct Answer: c) Multiparty systems and coalition governments
Explanation:
PR systems allocate seats based on vote share, allowing smaller parties to survive and fostering multiparty systems.
13. Which of the following is a key characteristic of a Parliamentary system?
Correct Answer: c) The executive is accountable to and can be dismissed by the legislature
Explanation:
In parliamentary systems, the executive (Prime Minister) relies on the confidence of the legislature.
14. In a Presidential system, the President serves as:
Correct Answer: c) Both Head of State and Head of Government
Explanation:
Unlike parliamentary systems, presidential systems combine the ceremonial and executive roles into one office.
15. Which country is the classic example of a semi-presidential system?
Correct Answer: c) France
Explanation:
France's Fifth Republic features both a directly elected president and a prime minister accountable to parliament.
16. What is 'Cohabitation' in a semi-presidential system?
Correct Answer: b) When the President and the Prime Minister belong to opposing political parties
Explanation:
Cohabitation occurs when the presidency and the legislative majority are held by rival parties.
17. The concept of 'Civic Culture', involving a mix of participant, subject, and parochial attitudes, was developed by:
Correct Answer: b) Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba
Explanation:
Almond and Verba's 1963 book 'The Civic Culture' is a foundational text in political culture research.
18. Robert Putnam's concept of 'Social Capital' refers to:
Correct Answer: c) Networks, norms, and trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation
Explanation:
Putnam argues that high social capital leads to better institutional performance and democratic health.
19. A state that has absolute power over all aspects of public and private life is termed:
Correct Answer: b) Totalitarian
Explanation:
Totalitarianism aims to control every aspect of life, relying on ideology, terror, and a single mass party.
20. Authoritarian regimes differ from totalitarian regimes primarily because authoritarian regimes:
Correct Answer: c) Tolerate some pluralism as long as it does not challenge the state
Explanation:
Authoritarianism lacks a guiding utopian ideology and allows some limited social or economic pluralism.
21. The process by which a non-democratic regime transitions into a democratic one is called:
Correct Answer: b) Democratization
Explanation:
Democratization is the transitional phase from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.
22. Samuel Huntington identified distinct periods of democratic expansion, which he called:
Correct Answer: b) The Waves of Democratization
Explanation:
Huntington described three 'waves' of democratization occurring globally since the 19th century.
23. What does 'Democratic Consolidation' mean?
Correct Answer: b) The process by which democracy becomes 'the only game in town' and unlikely to revert to authoritarianism
Explanation:
Consolidation refers to the maturation of a democracy making it highly resilient.
24. Which term describes a regime that holds regular elections but systematically violates civil liberties and democratic norms?
Correct Answer: b) Illiberal Democracy (or Competitive Authoritarianism)
Explanation:
These hybrid regimes use democratic facades but manipulate the playing field to maintain power.
25. In a federal system, sovereignty is:
Correct Answer: b) Shared between a central government and regional governments
Explanation:
Federalism divides constitutional authority between a central government and subnational units.
26. Which of the following is an example of a Unitary State?
Correct Answer: c) France
Explanation:
France has a highly centralized unitary system, unlike the federal systems of the US, Germany, and India.
27. Devolution is the process by which:
Correct Answer: b) A central government grants administrative and legislative powers to regional governments
Explanation:
Devolution decentralizes power in a unitary state, such as the UK creating the Scottish Parliament.
28. Which electoral system is also known as 'First-Past-The-Post' (FPTP)?
Correct Answer: b) Single-Member District Plurality
Explanation:
In FPTP, the candidate with the most votes (plurality) in a single-member district wins.
29. The concept of the 'Veto Player' in comparative politics was introduced by:
Correct Answer: a) George Tsebelis
Explanation:
Tsebelis argued that policy stability depends on the number and ideological distance of veto players.
30. What is a 'Catch-all Party'?
Correct Answer: b) A party that attempts to attract voters of diverse viewpoints by moderating its ideology
Explanation:
Otto Kirchheimer coined 'catch-all party' to describe modern parties that dilute ideology for mass appeal.
31. According to Giovanni Sartori, a 'Polarized Pluralism' party system is characterized by:
Correct Answer: c) The presence of anti-system parties and extreme ideological distance
Explanation:
Polarized pluralism involves extreme ideological polarization and parties that reject the democratic system.
32. Clientelism is a political practice characterized by:
Correct Answer: b) The exchange of goods and services for political support and votes
Explanation:
Clientelism involves patron-client networks where politicians distribute resources in return for loyalty.
33. The 'Dependency Theory' of political economy argues that:
Correct Answer: b) Underdevelopment in the Global South is caused by its unequal integration into the global capitalist system
Explanation:
Dependency theory posits that wealth flows from poor 'periphery' states to wealthy 'core' states.
34. Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) is an economic policy that advocates:
Correct Answer: a) Replacing foreign imports with domestic production
Explanation:
ISI was used extensively in Latin America to reduce foreign dependency by subsidizing domestic industries.
35. Export-Led Growth was the primary development strategy for:
Correct Answer: c) The 'East Asian Tigers' (e.g., South Korea, Taiwan)
Explanation:
The East Asian Tigers rapidly industrialized by focusing on exporting manufactured goods to the global market.
36. Who authored the book 'Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy', analyzing the role of agrarian classes in regime types?
Correct Answer: b) Barrington Moore Jr.
Explanation:
Moore famously argued 'No bourgeois, no democracy' in his structural analysis of regime formation.
37. Theda Skocpol's theory of social revolutions emphasizes the role of:
Correct Answer: c) State breakdown and peasant mobilization
Explanation:
Skocpol argued that revolutions are structural outcomes caused by state crisis and peasant uprisings.
38. Which of the following is a core premise of 'Rational Choice Institutionalism'?
Correct Answer: a) Institutions shape political outcomes by constraining the utility-maximizing behavior of individuals
Explanation:
Rational choice assumes actors maximize utility, and institutions provide the rules that constrain their choices.
39. The concept of 'Path Dependence' in historical institutionalism implies that:
Correct Answer: b) Early choices limit future options, making reversing course difficult
Explanation:
Path dependence means that historical choices create institutional inertia that shapes long-term outcomes.
40. According to the 'Varieties of Capitalism' literature (Hall and Soskice), the US and UK are examples of:
Correct Answer: b) Liberal Market Economies (LMEs)
Explanation:
LMEs rely on competitive markets and formal contracts, contrasting with CMEs like Germany.
41. In a Coordinated Market Economy (CME) like Germany, wage bargaining is typically:
Correct Answer: c) Centralized and coordinated between large unions and employer associations
Explanation:
CMEs feature strategic interactions and centralized bargaining between organized labor and business.
42. A 'Gerrymandered' electoral district is one that is:
Correct Answer: b) Drawn to give an unfair political advantage to a specific party or group
Explanation:
Gerrymandering manipulates district boundaries to dilute or concentrate voting power.
43. Which of the following describes a 'Bicameral' legislature?
Correct Answer: b) A legislature divided into two separate assemblies or houses
Explanation:
Bicameralism (e.g., US House and Senate) divides legislative power between two chambers.
44. In comparative politics, 'Asymmetric Federalism' refers to a system where:
Correct Answer: b) Different subnational units possess unequal powers and autonomy
Explanation:
Countries like Spain and Canada grant specific regions greater autonomy than others, creating asymmetry.
45. The concept of 'Polyarchy', coined by Robert Dahl, is used to describe:
Correct Answer: b) Real-world democratic regimes characterized by high contestation and participation
Explanation:
Dahl used polyarchy to distinguish practical modern democracies from the theoretical ideal of democracy.
46. Which term describes the military seizure of government power?
Correct Answer: a) Coup d'état
Explanation:
A coup d'état is a sudden, illegal, and often violent overthrow of an existing government by the military.
47. A 'Vote of No Confidence' is a mechanism primarily found in which type of system?
Correct Answer: b) Parliamentary
Explanation:
It allows the legislature to dismiss the prime minister and cabinet if they lose majority support.
48. What is the primary function of Judicial Review?
Correct Answer: b) To evaluate and potentially invalidate laws or executive actions that violate the constitution
Explanation:
Judicial review gives courts the power to ensure laws comply with constitutional principles.
49. Which of the following describes 'Corporatism' as an interest group system?
Correct Answer: b) The state officially recognizes and grants monopoly representation to a few peak interest groups
Explanation:
Corporatism integrates key groups (like labor and business) directly into state policymaking.
50. Unlike corporatism, 'Pluralism' involves:
Correct Answer: b) A competitive and decentralized system where multiple groups vie for influence
Explanation:
Pluralist systems feature open competition among numerous independent interest groups.
51. What does 'Sovereignty' mean in the context of the state?
Correct Answer: b) The ultimate and exclusive legal authority over a territory and its people
Explanation:
Sovereignty is the defining legal feature of a state, representing supreme authority within its borders.
52. Which treaty is generally considered the foundational moment for the modern concept of state sovereignty?
Correct Answer: c) Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Explanation:
The 1648 Peace of Westphalia established the principle of non-interference in domestic affairs.
53. Which political scientist is famous for defining politics as 'who gets what, when, how'?
Correct Answer: a) Harold Lasswell
Explanation:
Lasswell's 1936 book title became one of the most famous definitions of politics.
54. The 'Welfare State' is primarily designed to:
Correct Answer: b) Provide social and economic security for citizens
Explanation:
Welfare states manage social risks by providing healthcare, pensions, and unemployment benefits.
55. Gøsta Esping-Andersen's typology of welfare states includes all of the following EXCEPT:
Correct Answer: d) Totalitarian
Explanation:
Esping-Andersen identified Liberal, Conservative, and Social Democratic as the three main welfare regimes.
56. In a 'Social Democratic' welfare state (e.g., Sweden), benefits are typically:
Correct Answer: b) Universal and highly egalitarian
Explanation:
Social Democratic regimes aim for universal coverage and equality of highest standards, funded by high taxation.
57. The 'Gini Coefficient' is used to measure:
Correct Answer: c) Income inequality
Explanation:
The Gini coefficient measures the distribution of income, where 0 is perfect equality and 1 is maximal inequality.
58. A 'Mixed Electoral System' typically combines elements of:
Correct Answer: b) First-Past-The-Post and Proportional Representation
Explanation:
Mixed systems, like Germany's MMP, use both single-member districts and proportional party lists.
59. Which of the following is a key requirement of a 'Free and Fair' election?
Correct Answer: a) Universal adult suffrage and secret ballots
Explanation:
Free and fair elections require that all adults can vote secretly without intimidation or fraud.
60. An 'Initiative' is a form of direct democracy that allows:
Correct Answer: b) Citizens to propose legislation or constitutional amendments through a petition
Explanation:
Initiatives empower citizens to directly draft and vote on laws, bypassing the traditional legislature.
61. Which concept describes the breakdown of traditional social ties and values due to rapid industrialization?
Correct Answer: a) Anomie
Explanation:
Emile Durkheim coined 'anomie' to describe the normlessness that can accompany rapid social modernization.
62. The 'Iron Law of Oligarchy', coined by Robert Michels, states that:
Correct Answer: b) All complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are initially, eventually develop oligarchic tendencies
Explanation:
Michels argued that organizational bureaucracy inherently concentrates power in the hands of a few leaders.
63. What is 'State Capacity'?
Correct Answer: c) The ability of the state to wield power to carry out basic tasks like security and taxation
Explanation:
State capacity measures how effectively a government can execute policies and deliver public goods.
64. A 'Failed State' is characterized by:
Correct Answer: b) A complete loss of state capacity and inability to provide basic security
Explanation:
Failed states, like Somalia in the 1990s, lose control of their territory and cannot function as sovereign entities.
65. The concept of 'Legitimacy' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The recognized right to rule and the acceptance of authority by the public
Explanation:
Legitimacy is the popular acceptance that a government or state possesses valid authority.
66. According to Max Weber, 'Charismatic Legitimacy' is based on:
Correct Answer: c) The exceptional personal qualities or heroic attributes of an individual leader
Explanation:
Weber identified charismatic authority as relying on the unique, inspiring persona of a leader.
67. Rational-Legal Legitimacy is typically the foundation of:
Correct Answer: a) Modern democratic states
Explanation:
Modern democracies rely on institutionalized laws, constitutions, and procedures for legitimacy.
68. Which ideological tradition heavily emphasizes individual freedom, free markets, and limited government?
Correct Answer: c) Classical Liberalism
Explanation:
Classical liberalism prioritizes negative liberty, property rights, and a minimal state.
69. Fascism is best described as an ideology that emphasizes:
Correct Answer: b) Extreme nationalism, authoritarianism, and the subordination of the individual to the state
Explanation:
Fascism rejects both liberalism and communism, focusing on national rebirth through total state control.
70. Marxism argues that historical development is driven primarily by:
Correct Answer: b) Class conflict over the means of production
Explanation:
Historical materialism, Marx's theory, views class struggle as the engine of human history.
71. In Marxist theory, the 'Proletariat' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The working class who must sell their labor to survive
Explanation:
Marx defined the proletariat as the wage-earning laborers exploited by the bourgeoisie.
72. Which concept involves the state providing extensive public goods to minimize economic inequality, while preserving democratic and capitalist structures?
Correct Answer: a) Social Democracy
Explanation:
Social democracy balances capitalist markets with a strong welfare state and democratic rights.
73. Neoliberalism is an economic policy approach that advocates for:
Correct Answer: c) Privatization, deregulation, and free trade
Explanation:
Neoliberalism seeks to reduce state intervention in the economy to promote market efficiency.
74. The 'Washington Consensus' refers to:
Correct Answer: a) A set of free-market economic policies recommended for developing countries by institutions like the IMF and World Bank
Explanation:
Coined in 1989, it describes standard neoliberal reform packages including fiscal discipline and privatization.
75. A 'Command Economy' is one in which:
Correct Answer: b) The state owns the means of production and centrally plans all economic activity
Explanation:
Command economies, like the Soviet Union, replaced market mechanisms with centralized state planning.
76. What is 'Political Socialization'?
Correct Answer: b) The way in which individuals learn and develop their political attitudes and values
Explanation:
Socialization is the lifelong process of acquiring political culture via family, school, and media.
77. The concept of 'Civil Society' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens
Explanation:
Civil society exists between the state and the market, encompassing NGOs, clubs, and civic groups.
78. Alexis de Tocqueville's study of American democracy famously highlighted the importance of:
Correct Answer: b) Voluntary associations and civil society
Explanation:
Tocqueville believed robust civic associations were vital for American democratic success.
79. A 'Nation' is best defined as:
Correct Answer: b) A group of people bound by a shared identity, culture, language, or history
Explanation:
A nation is a sociological/cultural concept, whereas a state is a political/legal entity.
80. What is Nationalism?
Correct Answer: b) The ideology that the nation and the state should be congruent
Explanation:
Nationalism asserts that a national group has the right to its own sovereign state.
81. A 'Nation-State' is a political unit where:
Correct Answer: b) A sovereign state's borders correspond closely to the geographic distribution of a specific nation
Explanation:
Japan and Iceland are classic examples where the state and the cultural nation closely overlap.
82. Civic Nationalism differs from Ethnic Nationalism because Civic Nationalism:
Correct Answer: c) Is based on adherence to a set of political principles and citizenship, regardless of ancestry
Explanation:
Civic nationalism is inclusive and based on political allegiance, typical of the US and France.
83. Ethnic Nationalism is characterized by belonging based on:
Correct Answer: b) Common descent, language, and shared heritage
Explanation:
Ethnic nationalism defines the nation strictly by shared ancestry, often making naturalization difficult.
84. Which region was primarily affected by the 'Arab Spring' uprisings beginning in 2010?
Correct Answer: c) The Middle East and North Africa
Explanation:
The Arab Spring was a wave of pro-democracy protests and uprisings across the MENA region.
85. The breakdown of which country in the 1990s is the classic modern example of violent 'Balkanization'?
Correct Answer: b) Yugoslavia
Explanation:
Yugoslavia fragmented violently into multiple smaller, ethnically based states.
86. What is 'Asymmetrical Warfare'?
Correct Answer: b) Conflict in which the two sides possess vastly different resources and tactics, such as a state vs. a guerrilla group
Explanation:
It describes unconventional conflicts where weaker non-state actors use tactics like terrorism against powerful states.
87. The concept of 'Terrorism' is most commonly defined in political science as:
Correct Answer: b) The use of violence by non-state actors against civilians to achieve a political goal
Explanation:
Terrorism is a tactic designed to spread fear for political ends, specifically targeting non-combatants.
88. Which of the following describes a 'Theocracy'?
Correct Answer: b) A regime based on religious law, where religious leaders hold ultimate authority
Explanation:
Iran is a contemporary example of a theocracy, where the Supreme Leader is a religious cleric.
89. Which concept describes the shift of economic and political power from national states to global institutions and markets?
Correct Answer: c) Globalization
Explanation:
Globalization integrates economies and societies, challenging traditional state sovereignty.
90. The European Union is best described as a:
Correct Answer: b) Supranational Organization
Explanation:
The EU possesses authority that supersedes its member states in certain regulatory and economic areas.
91. In the UK, parliamentary sovereignty means that:
Correct Answer: b) Parliament is the supreme legal authority and can create or end any law
Explanation:
Unlike the US, the UK has no codified constitution that limits the absolute legislative power of Parliament.
92. Which institution serves as the upper house of the Russian legislature?
Correct Answer: b) The Federation Council
Explanation:
The Federation Council represents Russia's federal subjects, while the State Duma is the lower house.
93. China's political system is best categorized as a:
Correct Answer: b) One-party authoritarian regime
Explanation:
The Chinese Communist Party holds a monopoly on political power in China.
94. In China, the highest concentration of political power rests in the:
Correct Answer: b) Politburo Standing Committee
Explanation:
The PSC consists of the top leaders of the Communist Party and makes all major decisions.
95. The 'Guardian Council' is a crucial political institution in which country?
Correct Answer: c) Iran
Explanation:
Iran's Guardian Council vets electoral candidates and ensures legislation aligns with Islamic law.
96. Which of the following countries has an uncodified (unwritten) constitution?
Correct Answer: c) United Kingdom
Explanation:
The UK constitution is comprised of statutes, conventions, and common law, not a single document.
97. The term 'Nomenklatura' historically referred to:
Correct Answer: b) The list of key elite positions and the people chosen to fill them in the Soviet Union
Explanation:
It was the system by which the Communist Party controlled all important administrative appointments.
98. Which of the following best describes the 'Executive' branch of government?
Correct Answer: c) It implements and enforces laws
Explanation:
The executive (presidents, prime ministers, cabinets) is responsible for running the state machinery.
99. In political science, a 'Cabinet' is:
Correct Answer: a) The group of top executives or ministers who direct government departments
Explanation:
The cabinet forms the core of the executive branch and assists the head of government.
100. What is 'Patrimonialism'?
Correct Answer: b) A form of governance where all power flows directly from the leader, often blurring public and private resources
Explanation:
Patrimonial leaders treat state resources as their personal property to reward loyalists.
101. Which concept implies that political actors make calculated choices to maximize their own interests?
Correct Answer: b) Rational Choice Theory
Explanation:
This theory borrows from economics, assuming actors behave instrumentally to maximize utility.
102. The 'Free Rider Problem' occurs when:
Correct Answer: b) Individuals benefit from a collective good without contributing to its provision
Explanation:
Mancur Olson highlighted this issue in collective action, where rational individuals avoid paying costs.
103. A 'Public Good' is defined by two characteristics: it is non-excludable and:
Correct Answer: a) Non-rivalrous
Explanation:
Non-rivalrous means one person's use does not diminish availability to others (e.g., national defense).
104. The 'Tragedy of the Commons' demonstrates how:
Correct Answer: b) Rational individual behavior can lead to the depletion of a shared resource
Explanation:
Garrett Hardin used the concept to show how shared pastures are overgrazed when actors maximize self-interest.
105. In comparative politics, what is a 'Cleavage'?
Correct Answer: a) A deep and persistent societal division that structures political conflict and party systems
Explanation:
Lipset and Rokkan identified cleavages like class, religion, and region as the basis of party systems.
106. The 'Center-Periphery' cleavage primarily relates to conflicts between:
Correct Answer: b) The central state-building culture and subject regional cultures
Explanation:
This cleavage arose during state formation, pitting central authorities against regional minority identities.
107. Which cleavage emerged directly from the Industrial Revolution?
Correct Answer: b) Owner (Capital) vs. Worker (Labor)
Explanation:
The class cleavage defined left-right politics for much of the 20th century.
108. Post-materialism, as defined by Ronald Inglehart, suggests that as societies become wealthier, voters shift their focus from economic security to:
Correct Answer: b) Quality of life, environmentalism, and self-expression
Explanation:
Inglehart argued that post-WWII affluence led to new values prioritizing autonomy and ecology.
109. A 'Coalition Government' occurs when:
Correct Answer: b) No single party wins a majority, forcing multiple parties to cooperate to form an executive
Explanation:
Common in PR systems, coalitions require parties to share cabinet seats to achieve a legislative majority.
110. What is a 'Grand Coalition'?
Correct Answer: b) A government formed by the two largest rival political parties
Explanation:
A grand coalition unites the major left and right parties, common in Germany (CDU and SPD).
111. An electoral system with a 'Magnitude' of one (M=1) refers to:
Correct Answer: b) A single-member district where only one representative is elected
Explanation:
District magnitude is the number of seats allocated to a district; M=1 defines FPTP/Plurality systems.
112. In proportional representation, the 'Electoral Threshold' is:
Correct Answer: b) The minimum percentage of votes a party needs to win any seats
Explanation:
Thresholds (e.g., 5% in Germany) prevent extreme fragmentation by keeping tiny parties out of parliament.
113. A 'Referendum' is:
Correct Answer: b) A national vote called by a government to address a specific proposal
Explanation:
Referendums are top-down mechanisms of direct democracy, allowing citizens to vote on specific policies.
114. Which indicator is most commonly used to measure a country's level of economic development?
Correct Answer: b) Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita
Explanation:
GDP per capita divides the total economic output by the population, estimating average wealth.
115. The Human Development Index (HDI) measures development by combining GDP per capita with:
Correct Answer: b) Life expectancy and education levels
Explanation:
The UN's HDI provides a broader picture of well-being beyond just economic output.
116. What is the primary characteristic of an 'Oligarchy'?
Correct Answer: c) Rule by a small, wealthy, or privileged elite
Explanation:
Oligarchies concentrate power in the hands of a few, often based on wealth or military status.
117. A 'Vanguard Party', as theorized by Vladimir Lenin, is designed to:
Correct Answer: b) Lead the working class in revolution because the workers cannot achieve class consciousness on their own
Explanation:
Lenin argued that a highly disciplined elite party was necessary to trigger the communist revolution.
118. In structural-functionalism, 'Political Articulation' (or interest articulation) refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The process by which individuals and groups express their needs and demands to the government
Explanation:
Interest groups and social movements primarily perform the function of articulating demands.
119. Interest 'Aggregation', according to Gabriel Almond, is primarily the function of:
Correct Answer: b) Political Parties
Explanation:
Political parties aggregate diverse articulated interests into coherent policy platforms.
120. Which concept describes the situation where multiple countries experience simultaneous democratic transitions?
Correct Answer: a) Snowballing or Contagion effect
Explanation:
Huntington noted that successful democratization in one country can inspire neighboring countries.
121. The 'Democratic Deficit' is a term frequently used to criticize:
Correct Answer: b) The European Union
Explanation:
Critics argue EU institutions lack democratic accountability and are too distant from ordinary citizens.
122. A 'Bureaucracy' is characterized by:
Correct Answer: b) Hierarchical organization, specialized division of labor, and adherence to formal rules
Explanation:
Max Weber defined ideal bureaucracy as a highly rational and impersonal administrative system.
123. What is 'Kleptocracy'?
Correct Answer: b) A government whose corrupt leaders use political power to steal the wealth of the nation
Explanation:
Kleptocracies are characterized by massive, systemic corruption and embezzlement by rulers.
124. According to World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein), the global economy is divided into:
Correct Answer: b) Core, Semi-periphery, and Periphery
Explanation:
Wallerstein argues that wealthy core states exploit poorer peripheral states for cheap labor and raw materials.
125. The term 'Third World' originated during the Cold War to describe:
Correct Answer: b) Countries aligned with neither the US-led NATO nor the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact
Explanation:
Originally a geopolitical term for the non-aligned movement, it later became synonymous with developing nations.
126. What is the role of a 'Head of State'?
Correct Answer: b) To serve as the symbolic and unifying representative of the people
Explanation:
Heads of state (like monarchs or ceremonial presidents) symbolize the nation, distinguishing them from heads of government.
127. Which of the following describes a 'Shadow Cabinet'?
Correct Answer: b) The opposition party's alternative to the governing cabinet in a parliamentary system
Explanation:
In Westminster systems, the opposition appoints a shadow cabinet to scrutinize government ministers.
128. In political science, 'Institutions' are defined as:
Correct Answer: b) Formal and informal rules, norms, and practices that structure political behavior
Explanation:
Institutions are the 'rules of the game' that constrain and shape human interactions.
129. What does a 'Constructivist' approach to identity emphasize?
Correct Answer: b) Identities are socially constructed, fluid, and shaped by historical and political processes
Explanation:
Constructivism argues that ethnic and national identities are created and altered by social contexts, not primordial.
130. Primordialism, in contrast to Constructivism, argues that ethnic identity is:
Correct Answer: b) Deeply rooted, ancient, and relatively immutable
Explanation:
Primordialists view ethnicity as an innate, fixed characteristic tied to ancestry and deep history.
131. A 'Majoritarian' democracy (as described by Lijphart) tends to feature:
Correct Answer: b) Single-party cabinets, executive dominance, and two-party systems
Explanation:
The Westminster model is the classic majoritarian system, concentrating power in the hands of the majority.
132. Which characteristic is typical of a 'Consensus' democracy (Lijphart)?
Correct Answer: c) Multiparty systems and multiparty cabinets
Explanation:
Consensus democracies aim to include as many groups as possible in decision-making through power-sharing.
133. The term 'Junta' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) A committee of military leaders who rule a country after a coup
Explanation:
Military juntas are oligarchic authoritarian regimes run by the leaders of the armed forces.
134. What is a 'Personalist Dictatorship'?
Correct Answer: b) A regime where all power lies in a single leader, built on a cult of personality
Explanation:
Leaders like Mobutu in Zaire personalized the state, making all institutions dependent on their whim.
135. In political economy, 'Austerity' policies involve:
Correct Answer: b) Reducing government deficits through deep spending cuts and tax increases
Explanation:
Austerity is often implemented during debt crises to satisfy creditors, frequently causing political backlash.
136. A 'Confidence and Supply' agreement in a parliament means:
Correct Answer: a) A smaller party agrees to support the government on budgets and no-confidence votes without joining the cabinet
Explanation:
This allows a minority government to survive without giving cabinet positions to the supporting party.
137. What is the main feature of a 'Minority Government'?
Correct Answer: b) The governing party or coalition holds less than 50% of the seats in the legislature
Explanation:
Minority governments must negotiate with opposition parties on a case-by-case basis to pass laws.
138. The concept of 'Historical Materialism' was developed by:
Correct Answer: b) Karl Marx
Explanation:
Marx used this framework to argue that material/economic conditions fundamentally shape society and politics.
139. What is 'Gerrymandering' named after?
Correct Answer: b) Elbridge Gerry, a US politician, and a salamander-shaped district
Explanation:
Governor Gerry signed a bill in 1812 creating a partisan district that resembled a salamander.
140. In the context of democratization, a 'Pacted Transition' occurs when:
Correct Answer: b) Authoritarian elites and democratic opposition negotiate a peaceful handover of power
Explanation:
Pacts (like in Spain in the 1970s) ensure stability by guaranteeing some protections for outgoing elites.
141. The 'Third Wave' of democratization, according to Huntington, began in 1974 in which country?
Correct Answer: c) Portugal
Explanation:
Portugal's Carnation Revolution in 1974 is cited as the starting point of the global Third Wave.
142. Which of the following is a classic example of a 'One-Party Dominant System' where opposition is legal but rarely wins?
Correct Answer: b) Japan (under the LDP)
Explanation:
The Liberal Democratic Party has ruled Japan for nearly all of its post-WWII democratic history.
143. What is 'Populism'?
Correct Answer: b) A political approach that pits 'the pure people' against a 'corrupt elite'
Explanation:
Populism is a thin ideology focusing on anti-elitism, claiming to represent the unified will of the masses.
144. The 'Rule of Law' implies that:
Correct Answer: b) All citizens and institutions, including the government, are accountable to legally established laws
Explanation:
The rule of law ensures predictability, equality, and limitations on arbitrary government power.
145. A 'Written Constitution' is also known as:
Correct Answer: a) A codified constitution
Explanation:
A codified constitution compiles the fundamental rules of a state into a single authoritative document.
146. The principle of 'Separation of Powers' was most famously articulated by:
Correct Answer: b) Montesquieu
Explanation:
Montesquieu argued that dividing power into executive, legislative, and judicial branches prevents tyranny.
147. A 'Lame Duck' refers to an elected official who:
Correct Answer: b) Is approaching the end of their tenure, especially after a successor has been elected
Explanation:
Lame ducks typically have reduced political power because their time in office is strictly limited.
148. In an electoral context, what is 'Malapportionment'?
Correct Answer: b) When electoral districts have highly unequal populations, violating the principle of 'one person, one vote'
Explanation:
Malapportionment gives voters in smaller districts disproportionately more power than those in larger ones.
149. The 'Two-Round System' (Runoff voting) is commonly used to elect the President in:
Correct Answer: c) France
Explanation:
If no candidate wins a majority in the first round, the top two advance to a second, decisive round.
150. What distinguishes 'Civil Liberties' from 'Civil Rights'?
Correct Answer: b) Civil liberties are protections FROM government interference, while civil rights require government action to ensure equality
Explanation:
Liberties (e.g., free speech) restrict the state; rights (e.g., anti-discrimination) obligate state protection.
151. An 'Illiberal Democracy' (as theorized by Fareed Zakaria) is characterized by:
Correct Answer: b) Elections taking place, but citizens are cut off from knowledge about the activities of those who exercise real power
Explanation:
Zakaria highlighted regimes that possess democratic elections but lack constitutional liberalism.
152. Which political scientist wrote 'The End of the Transition Paradigm'?
Correct Answer: a) Thomas Carothers
Explanation:
Carothers criticized the assumption that all authoritarian regimes were inevitably transitioning to democracy.
153. The term 'Competitive Authoritarianism' implies that:
Correct Answer: b) Democratic institutions exist but are systematically abused by incumbents to maintain power
Explanation:
Levitsky and Way coined this to describe regimes where opposition can compete, but the playing field is heavily skewed.
154. In comparative politics, 'Rent-Seeking' behavior is:
Correct Answer: b) Manipulating public policy or economic conditions to increase profits without creating new wealth
Explanation:
Rent-seeking occurs when individuals or firms lobby for monopolies, tariffs, or subsidies that enrich themselves.
155. A 'Coup-proofing' strategy used by authoritarian leaders involves:
Correct Answer: b) Creating parallel security forces that counter-balance the regular military
Explanation:
Dictators often create Republican Guards or paramilitaries to prevent the regular army from staging a coup.
156. The 'Middle-Income Trap' refers to a situation where a country:
Correct Answer: b) Attains a certain level of income but loses its competitive edge, failing to become a high-income nation
Explanation:
Countries stuck in the trap lose their low-wage advantage but lack the innovation to compete with rich nations.
157. What is the primary characteristic of an 'Extractive Institution' (Acemoglu and Robinson)?
Correct Answer: b) It concentrates power and wealth in the hands of a narrow elite
Explanation:
In 'Why Nations Fail', extractive institutions are contrasted with inclusive ones, leading to long-term poverty.
158. An 'Inclusive Institution' (Acemoglu and Robinson) promotes:
Correct Answer: b) Broad participation, secure property rights, and level playing fields
Explanation:
Inclusive economic and political institutions are argued to be the root cause of national prosperity.
159. Which of the following best defines 'Political Efficacy'?
Correct Answer: b) A citizen's belief that their political participation matters and can influence the government
Explanation:
High political efficacy leads to higher voter turnout and civic engagement.
160. The concept of 'Cross-Cutting Cleavages' tends to:
Correct Answer: b) Moderate political conflict because individuals belong to multiple overlapping groups
Explanation:
When cleavages (e.g., class and religion) do not align perfectly, they reduce the intensity of political division.
161. Conversely, 'Reinforcing Cleavages' tend to:
Correct Answer: b) Make conflict more intense as social divisions align perfectly (e.g., all poor people are of one religion)
Explanation:
Reinforcing cleavages deepen societal divisions, increasing the risk of instability or violence.
162. In a 'Bipartisan' political environment:
Correct Answer: b) Two major rival political parties find common ground and compromise on legislation
Explanation:
Bipartisanship implies cooperation between the two dominant political factions.
163. A 'Whip' in a parliamentary system is responsible for:
Correct Answer: b) Ensuring that members of the party vote according to the party platform
Explanation:
Party whips maintain party discipline in the legislature, particularly during crucial votes.
164. What is an 'Ombudsman'?
Correct Answer: b) An independent official appointed to investigate citizens' complaints against government administration
Explanation:
Originating in Scandinavia, ombudsmen serve as watchdogs to protect citizens from bureaucratic overreach.
165. The 'Iron Triangle' refers to the mutually beneficial policy-making relationship among:
Correct Answer: b) Congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups
Explanation:
This concept highlights how specific policies are captured by specialized, interconnected policy actors.
166. Which term describes a political system where power is heavily decentralized to local communities or councils?
Correct Answer: b) Subsidiarity
Explanation:
Subsidiarity is the principle that matters ought to be handled by the smallest, lowest, or least centralized competent authority.
167. A 'Plurality' is defined as:
Correct Answer: b) Winning more votes than any other candidate, but not necessarily a majority
Explanation:
In FPTP systems, candidates only need a plurality (the most votes) to win.
168. What is a 'By-election' (or special election)?
Correct Answer: b) An election held to fill a political office that has become vacant between general elections
Explanation:
By-elections occur when an incumbent dies, resigns, or is disqualified.
169. The concept of 'Soft Power' (Joseph Nye) involves a state achieving its goals through:
Correct Answer: b) Attraction, culture, political ideals, and diplomacy
Explanation:
Soft power is the ability to co-opt rather than coerce, shaping preferences through appeal.
170. Which of the following is an example of an 'Intergovernmental Organization' (IGO)?
Correct Answer: c) The United Nations
Explanation:
IGOs are composed primarily of sovereign states, unlike NGOs which are private organizations.
171. What is the 'State of Nature' in social contract theory?
Correct Answer: b) A hypothetical condition of humanity before the creation of the state and laws
Explanation:
Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau used this thought experiment to justify the necessity of government.
172. Hobbes characterized life in the 'State of Nature' as:
Correct Answer: b) Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short
Explanation:
Hobbes argued this brutal reality necessitated a strong, absolute sovereign to maintain order.
173. John Locke's social contract theory heavily influenced the concept of:
Correct Answer: c) Natural rights to life, liberty, and property
Explanation:
Locke believed the government's sole purpose was to protect these inherent natural rights.
174. A 'Constitutional Monarchy' is a system where:
Correct Answer: b) The monarch's powers are strictly limited by a constitution, often serving purely ceremonial roles
Explanation:
In countries like the UK and Japan, the monarch reigns but the elected government rules.
175. What does a 'Censure' motion generally entail?
Correct Answer: b) A formal statement of disapproval by a legislature against a public official
Explanation:
A censure is a severe political reprimand but does not automatically remove the official from office.
176. A 'Quango' (Quasi-Autonomous Non-Governmental Organization) is:
Correct Answer: b) An organization funded by the state but operating independently of direct government control
Explanation:
Common in the UK, Quangos handle specialized public functions with some autonomy from politicians.
177. The 'Spoils System' (or patronage) is a practice where:
Correct Answer: b) A winning political party gives government jobs to its supporters as a reward for victory
Explanation:
This system rewards political loyalty over bureaucratic merit, often leading to inefficiency.
178. The 'Merit System' in bureaucracy contrasts with the spoils system by selecting employees based on:
Correct Answer: b) Demonstrated ability and competitive examinations
Explanation:
Merit systems aim to create a professional, non-partisan, and competent civil service.
179. Which of the following is a key feature of an 'Open List' proportional representation system?
Correct Answer: b) Voters have some influence over which individual candidates from a party list get elected
Explanation:
Unlike closed lists, open lists empower voters to express preferences for specific politicians.
180. What is 'Gerrymandering's' specific technique known as 'Packing'?
Correct Answer: b) Concentrating opposition voters into a few districts to limit the total number of seats they can win
Explanation:
Packing concedes a few districts with massive margins to the opposition, allowing the ruling party to win the rest.
181. Gerrymandering's 'Cracking' technique involves:
Correct Answer: b) Spreading a voting bloc across multiple districts to ensure they never constitute a majority in any
Explanation:
Cracking dilutes the voting power of an opposition group by splitting them across various district lines.
182. A 'Swing State' (or marginal constituency) is one where:
Correct Answer: b) The vote is highly competitive and could plausibly be won by either major party
Explanation:
Swing districts receive the most attention during campaigns because they determine the overall outcome.
183. Which concept posits that states are rational unitary actors maximizing their security in an anarchic international system?
Correct Answer: c) Structural Realism (Neorealism)
Explanation:
Kenneth Waltz's Neorealism focuses on the constraints of the anarchic international structure.
184. The 'Democratic Peace Theory' suggests that:
Correct Answer: b) Democracies are highly unlikely to go to war with other democracies
Explanation:
Empirical evidence shows democratic states frequently fight, but almost never against each other.
185. What is 'Secession'?
Correct Answer: b) The formal withdrawal of a group or region from a sovereign state to form a new entity
Explanation:
Secession is a radical form of self-determination, often contested violently by the central state.
186. The term 'Irredentism' refers to:
Correct Answer: a) The policy of a state seeking to reclaim 'lost' territory inhabited by ethnic kin currently in another state
Explanation:
It often fuels nationalist conflicts, as a state claims adjacent territories based on historical or ethnic ties.
187. A 'Parastatal' organization is:
Correct Answer: b) A state-owned enterprise or agency that operates somewhat like a private business
Explanation:
Parastatals (e.g., state postal services or airlines) are owned by the government but run commercially.
188. The phenomenon where citizens vote for the executive from one party and the legislature from another is known as:
Correct Answer: b) Split-ticket voting
Explanation:
Split-ticket voting often leads to divided government in presidential systems.
189. What is 'Tactical (or Strategic) Voting'?
Correct Answer: b) Voting for a candidate who is not one's first preference, to prevent a more undesirable outcome
Explanation:
Common in FPTP systems, voters abandon third parties so their vote isn't 'wasted'.
190. A 'Recall Election' allows voters to:
Correct Answer: a) Remove an elected official from office before their term has ended
Explanation:
Recalls are a form of direct democracy holding politicians accountable mid-term.
191. In political science, 'Hegemony' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The dominant influence or leadership of one state or group over others
Explanation:
Hegemony can apply internationally (a superpower) or domestically (Gramsci's cultural hegemony).
192. Antonio Gramsci's concept of 'Cultural Hegemony' explains how:
Correct Answer: b) The ruling class maintains power by establishing its worldview as the accepted cultural norm
Explanation:
Gramsci argued capitalism maintains control not just by force, but by shaping societal consensus and values.
193. Which term describes a political system that blends elements of democracy and authoritarianism?
Correct Answer: c) Hybrid Regime
Explanation:
Hybrid regimes feature democratic forms (elections) but authoritarian substance (uneven playing fields).
194. What does a 'Bicameral' system primarily serve to do in a federal state?
Correct Answer: b) Provide representation for individual citizens in one house and subnational units (states) in the other
Explanation:
The US Senate (states) and House (population) exemplify bicameralism reflecting federal design.
195. The 'Tragedy of the Commons' is closely related to which economic concept?
Correct Answer: c) Market Failure
Explanation:
It describes a situation where individual rationality causes an inefficient outcome for society as a whole.
196. An 'Incumbency Advantage' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The tendency of current officeholders to win reelection due to existing visibility and resources
Explanation:
Incumbents benefit from name recognition, media access, and established donor networks.
197. A 'Zero-Sum Game' in politics occurs when:
Correct Answer: b) One party's gain is exactly equal to another party's loss
Explanation:
It describes strictly competitive situations where cooperation does not expand the total 'pie'.
198. The 'Security Dilemma' in international relations suggests that:
Correct Answer: b) Actions taken by a state to increase its own security cause reactions from other states, ultimately decreasing security for all
Explanation:
This spiral of mistrust explains arms races in an anarchic international system.
199. Which of the following is a core principle of 'Consociational Democracy'?
Correct Answer: b) Mutual veto rights for minority groups
Explanation:
Consociationalism relies on minority vetoes, grand coalitions, and proportionality to ease ethnic/social tensions.
200. What is the primary characteristic of an 'Unwritten Constitution'?
Correct Answer: b) It relies heavily on historical precedent, conventions, and various statutes rather than a single document
Explanation:
The UK constitution is 'unwritten' meaning uncodified, drawing on centuries of acts and conventions.
201. The term 'Biopolitics' (coined by Michel Foucault) refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The intersection of biology and politics, where the state manages and regulates human life and populations
Explanation:
Foucault analyzed how modern states exert power through public health, demography, and the control of bodies.
202. A 'Dictatorship of the Proletariat' in Marxist theory is:
Correct Answer: b) A transitional state where the working class holds power to dismantle capitalism
Explanation:
Marx theorized this phase was necessary between capitalism and the eventual stateless communist society.
203. What distinguishes 'Normative' political science from 'Empirical' political science?
Correct Answer: a) Normative focuses on what 'ought' to be, while empirical focuses on what 'is'
Explanation:
Normative theory deals with values and ethics, while empirical research relies on observation and data.
204. The concept of 'Isomorphism' in institutional theory explains:
Correct Answer: a) Why state institutions often adopt similar structures and processes to survive in the same environment
Explanation:
Isomorphism describes the homogenizing effect on organizations operating under similar constraints.
205. A 'Hung Parliament' occurs when:
Correct Answer: b) No single political party wins an absolute majority of seats in the legislature
Explanation:
In systems like the UK, a hung parliament typically necessitates a coalition or a minority government.
206. Which electoral system uses a quota, like the Droop quota, to allocate surplus votes?
Correct Answer: b) Single Transferable Vote (STV)
Explanation:
STV uses ranked-choice voting in multi-member districts, transferring surplus votes using a quota to achieve proportionality.
207. The 'Overton Window' refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The range of policies politically acceptable to the mainstream population at a given time
Explanation:
The concept illustrates how the political spectrum of 'acceptable' ideas can shift over time.
208. What is the primary feature of an 'Autocracy'?
Correct Answer: b) Supreme political power concentrated in the hands of one person
Explanation:
An autocracy relies on the absolute authority of a single individual, largely unconstrained by law.
209. The 'Resource Mobilization Theory' in the study of social movements emphasizes:
Correct Answer: b) The ability of movement leaders to gather funds, media access, and organizational structures
Explanation:
This theory argues that grievances are constant; what matters is the practical mobilization of resources to act on them.
210. Which concept suggests that economic modernization inevitably brings about cultural and political change?
Correct Answer: b) Modernization Theory
Explanation:
Modernization theorists believe that urbanization, education, and wealth naturally generate democratic pressures.
211. A 'Coupled System' of government, like Switzerland's Directorial system, features:
Correct Answer: b) An executive council elected by the legislature, functioning collectively as head of state and government
Explanation:
The Swiss Federal Council relies on collegial decision-making rather than a single head of government.
212. The 'Iron Triangle' in US politics specifically excludes which of the following?
Correct Answer: d) The Supreme Court
Explanation:
The iron triangle involves the mutually reinforcing relationship between bureaucrats, lawmakers, and lobbyists.
213. Which of the following defines 'Fiscal Policy'?
Correct Answer: b) The government's use of taxation and spending to influence the economy
Explanation:
Fiscal policy is controlled by the executive/legislature, whereas monetary policy is managed by central banks.
214. What is 'Monetary Policy'?
Correct Answer: b) A central bank's management of the money supply and interest rates
Explanation:
Central banks use monetary policy to control inflation and stabilize currency.
215. According to the logic of 'Collective Action', why do large groups often fail to mobilize effectively?
Correct Answer: b) Individuals prefer to 'free ride' on the efforts of others
Explanation:
Mancur Olson argued that without selective incentives, rational actors will avoid the costs of participation.
216. What is 'State-led Development'?
Correct Answer: b) An economic strategy where the state actively intervenes in the market to guide industrialization and growth
Explanation:
Common in East Asia, developmental states strategically directed investment to foster rapid growth.
217. The 'State of Exception', a concept popularized by Carl Schmitt, refers to:
Correct Answer: b) The sovereign's ability to transcend the rule of law in the name of the public good during a crisis
Explanation:
Schmitt argued that the true mark of sovereignty is the power to suspend the constitution in emergencies.
218. In structuralist terminology, 'Core' countries:
Correct Answer: b) Are highly industrialized, wealthy, and extract surplus value from the periphery
Explanation:
The core encompasses advanced capitalist nations that dominate the global economy.
219. A 'Rent-Seeking' state typically experiences:
Correct Answer: b) Endemic corruption and low economic productivity
Explanation:
When elites focus on extracting rents (like oil wealth) rather than creating wealth, development stalls.
220. The 'Washington Consensus' has been frequently criticized by dependency theorists for:
Correct Answer: b) Ignoring the role of the state in development and exacerbating inequality in the Global South
Explanation:
Critics argue neoliberal 'one-size-fits-all' policies often devastated emerging economies.
221. What is an 'Ideology'?
Correct Answer: b) A coherent set of ideas and beliefs that provides a framework for understanding and evaluating politics
Explanation:
Ideologies provide the worldview and normative goals that guide political action.
222. Which electoral system uses 'Party Lists'?
Correct Answer: c) Proportional Representation
Explanation:
In List PR, voters choose a party, and seats are distributed proportionally based on the party's list.
223. The concept of 'Legitimate Violence' is central to the definition of the state provided by:
Correct Answer: c) Max Weber
Explanation:
Weber argued that the state is the only entity that can legally authorize the use of physical force.
224. An 'Embedded Autonomy' refers to a state bureaucracy that is:
Correct Answer: b) Insulated from political pressure but deeply tied to industrial elites to facilitate economic growth
Explanation:
Peter Evans used this term to describe successful developmental states like South Korea.
225. The 'Gini Index' primarily measures:
Correct Answer: b) Wealth or income inequality within a nation
Explanation:
A higher Gini index indicates greater disparity in wealth distribution.
226. In the context of civil-military relations, a 'Praetorian' state is one where:
Correct Answer: b) The military frequently intervenes in politics to shape or overthrow the government
Explanation:
Praetorianism occurs when weak civilian institutions allow the military to act as a core political power broker.
227. A 'Sultanistic' regime is characterized by:
Correct Answer: b) Extreme personal rule where state institutions and the economy are treated as the dictator's personal property
Explanation:
Max Weber and later Juan Linz defined sultanism as personal rulership lacking any rational-legal limits.
228. What characterizes 'Consociationalism'?
Correct Answer: b) Power-sharing mechanisms like grand coalitions and proportional representation to manage deeply divided societies
Explanation:
Arend Lijphart formulated consociationalism to explain how segmented societies (like Belgium) maintain stability.
229. Which theory assumes that political outcomes are the result of strategic interactions among utility-maximizing individuals?
Correct Answer: b) Rational Choice Theory
Explanation:
Rational Choice applies microeconomic principles to political decision-making.
230. A 'Critical Juncture' in Historical Institutionalism refers to:
Correct Answer: b) A brief period of significant change that establishes a specific institutional path, closing off other options
Explanation:
Critical junctures set a path-dependent trajectory that shapes long-term political development.
231. What is 'Clientelism'?
Correct Answer: b) The targeted distribution of resources and favors by politicians in exchange for electoral support
Explanation:
Clientelism is a pervasive form of transactional politics, often undermining programmatic policymaking.
232. The 'Duverger's Hypothesis' states that proportional representation systems tend to lead to:
Correct Answer: b) Multiparty systems
Explanation:
While his 'law' links FPTP to two-party systems, his 'hypothesis' links PR to multiparty systems.
233. Which form of government incorporates a 'Dual Executive' (President and Prime Minister)?
Correct Answer: c) Semi-Presidential System
Explanation:
France is the classic model where a directly elected president shares power with a prime minister.
234. The 'Tragedy of the Commons' is most often solved by:
Correct Answer: b) Establishing property rights or government regulation
Explanation:
Institutions or regulations are needed to restrain individual rational behavior that ruins public goods.
235. A 'Unitary State' is one where:
Correct Answer: a) All power is constitutionally vested in the central government
Explanation:
Unlike federations, any regional authority in a unitary state is granted—and can be revoked—by the central government.
